Telecommunications requires advanced infrastructure, which involves huge capital expenditure. Owners of land with this infrastructure must be sure of the stability of rental income from their properties. Telecom Infrastructure Partners can guarantee this security through a one-time purchase of a long-term lease, minimizing the risk of loss of income and maximizing the use of capital from renting space.

One key part of this infrastructure is the Distributed Antenna System (DAS). The DAS improves wireless signal coverage in places where a single, powerful antenna might not be enough, such as densely populated buildings, office complexes, shopping malls, and sports stadiums. Instead of relying on a single large antenna, DAS uses multiple, smaller, strategically placed antennas connected to a central signal source, ensuring even and reliable signal distribution.

How does a distributed antenna system work?

To illustrate DAS, imagine a situation where you need to play music to an audience spread out across different rooms in a building. A single speaker placed in the middle would be ineffective—it would be too loud in some places, too quiet in others, and the sound would bounce around. A better solution is to place smaller speakers throughout the building, all playing the same music at a moderate volume. Similarly, in cellular networks, outdoor cell towers act as large speakers, effective for wide outdoor coverage but less effective inside buildings due to obstacles such as walls and dense materials. DAS solves this problem by moving smaller antennas inside buildings, evenly distributing the signal and overcoming the barriers that usually impede reception.

DAS typically focuses on cellular signal coverage rather than Wi-Fi internet connections. While large-scale Wi-Fi systems are called C-deployments, DAS can sometimes be integrated with Wi-Fi access points, as is the case at New York City’s Metropolitan Transportation Authority, which uses both DAS and Wi-Fi in subway stations.

Distributed Antenna System (DAS) – All You Need To Know | WilsonPro

Improved Connectivity on the NYC Subway

The Distributed Antenna System (DAS) being implemented in the New York City subway system provides extensive wireless coverage. The project involves the implementation of a state-of-the-art wireless network that covers 277 subway stations and provides access to 5,000 Wi-Fi hotspots, using approximately 120 miles of fiber-optic cables to transmit wireless signals.

This network serves more than 1.6 billion subway riders per year, offering a shared wireless infrastructure that supports a wide range of mobile devices with both cellular and Wi-Fi coverage. Major stations, including key hubs in Manhattan and Queens, benefit from improved connectivity, ensuring reliable service throughout the subway system.

The quality of Internet data transmission depends on the Wi-Fi 802.11 standard used. These groups of standards, developed by the IEEE and Wi-Fi Alliance, enable wireless Internet access on computers, smartphones and other devices such as printers, refrigerators and televisions.

Types of Wi-Fi 802.11 differ in network capacity, maximum internet speed, range, connection stability, efficiency, number of supported channels, security, transmission delays and energy consumption. Internet connection parameters depend on the standards supported by the router. Modern routers that support the latest Wi-Fi standards can significantly improve the quality of the internet.

Comparison of DAS, Small Cells, and WiFi

If you say “wireless” to someone in IT or LAN, they think WiFi. But to someone in telecommunications, wireless means cellular. Understanding the infrastructure that supports wireless technology, whether it’s OSP or in-building, WiFi or cellular, tower or small cell.

How to differentiate between DAS (distributed antenna systems for cellular networks) and small cells (also cellular). In most cases, they seem very similar, except that DAS is usually inside buildings, while small cells are outside. However, more importantly, DAS is usually owned by the owner of the space (building, sports facility, etc.) and serves multiple service providers, while small cells are owned by the service provider and serve only their services. WiFi is usually owned by the enterprise that uses it as part of their LAN – a company or organization – and is not shared outside of its employees and/or guests.

The biggest difference is the cost to users—WiFi is usually free, but all cellular systems are charged for time and data usage. However, cellular wireless networks are mobile—designed to support users on the move, so they can seamlessly hand off a user from one base station to another. WiFi, on the other hand, assumes that the user remains within its range and may need to re-login to another WiFi access point if they move. This mobility aspect of cellular networks requires additional resources, so WiFi usually has higher bandwidth. WiFi is essential in indoor spaces and, because it is so common, is cheap. However, WiFi connections for mobile cellular devices do not yet seem to be mature enough to provide reliable coverage for voice calls.

The choice between small cell and DAS in indoor spaces is simple – small cells are typically single-carrier connections and that is too limiting for most users. DAS is a similar technology but has the advantage of offering services from multiple providers. If better cellular service is desired indoors and WiFi connections for cellular connections are unreliable, DAS is the best option. Small cells seem to be a good option for better cellular service outdoors in metropolitan areas, but the capital costs of building systems are quite high.

When designing a DAS, the main factors to consider are the signal source and the type of signal distribution.

Signal sources in a distributed antenna system

The DAS must acquire a wireless signal for distribution. This can be a signal from another source outside the system, called off-air, or generated by the system itself, which can be small cell systems or larger base stations (BTS).

Off-air Distributed Antenna System

Off-air DAS (off-air Distributed Antenna System) is a popular solution used to improve cellular coverage in buildings and other areas with limited access to outside signals. It works by receiving the signal from nearby cell towers using a single central antenna, which is usually placed on the roof of the building. This signal is then redistributed to many smaller antennas placed inside the building, providing even coverage throughout the space.

Off-air DAS has several significant advantages. One of the biggest is its cost-effectiveness. Installing such a system is relatively cheap compared to other solutions, because it does not require building new infrastructure from scratch. It uses the existing signal from nearby cell towers, which minimizes costs. Another advantage is the ease of implementation. Off-air DAS is relatively easy to install. The main elements of the system are a central antenna that receives the signal, a signal amplifier and a network of cables leading to smaller internal antennas. The entire installation process can usually be carried out without major technical difficulties. In addition, off-air DAS is an ideal solution for urban buildings. In urban areas, where outdoor coverage is usually good, but the signal does not penetrate into buildings due to thick walls or other obstacles, off-air DAS allows the external signal to be efficiently transferred into the building, providing better coverage and call quality.

Off-air DAS does have a few drawbacks, however. One of the main limitations is its lower effectiveness in rural areas. In areas where outdoor coverage is weak or inconsistent, the central antenna may have difficulty receiving a strong enough signal for redistribution. In such cases, alternative solutions such as small-cell DAS may be necessary. Another disadvantage is its dependence on existing cellular infrastructure. Off-air DAS relies on existing cell towers, so if these are congested or have performance issues, the DAS system may also not perform optimally. In addition, signal interference due to terrain or architectural obstructions may occur, further affecting the performance of the system.

Examples of off-air DAS applications

Off-air DAS is widely used in various types of buildings and urban complexes such as:

• Office Towers : Multi-story office buildings often have indoor coverage issues. Off-air DAS can provide a reliable cellular signal on every floor.
• Shopping malls : Large shopping malls with thick walls and lots of obstructions can have trouble with even coverage. Off-air DAS helps distribute the signal evenly throughout the facility.
• Sports stadiums : Sports venues where a lot of people gather can experience network congestion. Off-air DAS helps distribute the signal evenly, providing better call quality for all users.

Off-air DAS is an effective solution for improving cellular coverage in many urban locations, while offering cost benefits and ease of installation. However, its effectiveness may be limited in rural areas or locations with already weak outdoor signals.

Off-air DAS works best in areas with good cellular coverage, but may be limited by building construction. Offices and residential buildings in metropolitan areas are good candidates for off-air DAS.

Off-air DAS deployment is fast, simple, and cheap. They require minimal collaboration with cellular service providers and can work with any operator. Because they only retransmit signals, they reuse existing cellular infrastructure.

Small-cell Distributed Antenna System

Small-cell DAS is an advanced solution used to provide and improve cellular coverage in areas with weak signals or dead zones where traditional methods may not be sufficient. This type of distributed antenna system generates its own signal using advanced equipment provided by cellular operators. It often uses internet connections to connect to the operator’s network, allowing for independence from existing signal infrastructure outside.

Small-cell DAS has many advantages that make it an exceptionally effective solution. The biggest advantage is its ability to generate its own signal, which allows the system to operate effectively in places where external coverage is weak or completely absent. This makes small-cell an ideal solution for rural areas, underground structures or places with a lot of architectural obstacles. Another advantage is the elimination of dead zones, which are common in many buildings and facilities. Small-cell DAS effectively eliminates these dead zones, providing uniform signal coverage throughout the area. Additionally, small-cell DAS uses advanced technologies such as beamforming, which allow for precise signal targeting to users. This increases efficiency and call quality while minimizing interference.

Small-cell DAS has several disadvantages that can make its implementation challenging. The installation of this system is more expensive and complicated compared to other DAS systems. It requires specialized equipment and often advanced internet infrastructure to provide adequate bandwidth for the generated signal. Another problem is the need to obtain appropriate consents and agreements with mobile operators. This process can be time-consuming and require negotiations, which can delay the implementation of the system.

Small-cell DAS Application Examples

Small-cell DAS can be used in a variety of environments, especially where standard DAS solutions may not be sufficient:

• Rural areas : In rural areas where traditional cell towers may not provide sufficient coverage, small-cell DAS can provide a reliable connection by using local internet connections.
• High-density buildings : In skyscrapers, shopping malls, airports and other large facilities, small-cell DAS helps in reducing network load, ensuring better call quality for users.
• Underground Structures : Systems such as subways, underground car parks and tunnels often have problems with cellular coverage. Small-cell DAS can effectively provide a signal in these difficult-to-cover areas.

Small-cell DAS implementation requires several key components. Small base stations, which are compact units placed in strategic locations, generate a cellular signal that is then transmitted to users. Small-cell DAS often uses local internet connections to transmit data to the operator’s network, and high-bandwidth connections are essential to ensuring high quality of service. Advanced management systems enable monitoring and optimization of small-cell DAS performance, ensuring maximum efficiency and minimizing interference.

Small-cell DAS is an advanced solution that effectively improves the coverage and quality of a cellular network in difficult conditions. Despite the higher cost and complexity of installation, the benefits of a reliable signal in areas with poor coverage make this system an invaluable tool in modern telecommunications networks.

BTS DAS: Integrated Base Stations for Large Spaces

BTS DAS (Base Transceiver Station Distributed Antenna System) is an advanced solution that is a full-fledged cell tower base station with multiple antennas distributed over a given area. BTS DAS is a key element in telecommunications networks, especially in places with high population density, such as sports stadiums, skyscrapers or shopping malls.

BTS DAS operates as a comprehensive base station, supporting various technology standards such as NodeB (3G), ENodeB (4G-LTE) and GNodeB (5G-NR). These advanced devices provide a wide range of telecommunications services, from voice transmission to fast mobile internet. The installation of BTS DAS requires close cooperation with mobile operators, who provide equipment and technical support and ensure the integration of the system with their networks, which allows for the highest quality of service and compliance with network requirements. BTS DAS often uses dedicated fiber optic connections to the operator’s network, which ensures high throughput and low latency, crucial for serving a large number of users and transferring large amounts of data.

BTS DAS is widely used in various environments such as sports stadiums, skyscrapers, office centers and shopping malls. In sports stadiums, where a large number of people using mobile phones gather at the same time, BTS DAS ensures uniform coverage and high quality of service thanks to multiple antennas placed around the facility. In tall buildings and office complexes, it helps to relieve network congestion by providing stable connections on different floors of the building. In large shopping malls, it ensures that all customers have access to a strong mobile signal, which is crucial both for communication and for various mobile services offered in such places.

BTS DAS offers a number of advantages, including high performance, scalability and reliability. It provides very high performance, enabling the provision of a large number of users simultaneously, which is particularly important in high traffic areas where traditional methods may not be sufficient. BTS DAS systems are easily scalable, allowing them to grow as demand for telecommunications services increases; additional antennas and connections can be added to meet growing needs. By using dedicated fiber optic connections and advanced technology, BTS DAS provides reliable connections and minimizes the risk of service interruptions.

BTS DAS deployment is associated with several challenges, including cost, technical complexity, and regulatory requirements. BTS DAS installation is expensive in terms of both equipment and infrastructure, and dedicated fiber connections and cooperation with mobile operators can significantly increase implementation costs. In addition, the system requires advanced technical knowledge and precise planning, making the process of installation and integration with the existing network complex and time-consuming. Additionally, BTS DAS deployment may involve meeting various regulatory requirements, depending on local telecommunications regulations and standards.

BTS DAS is an advanced solution that enables the provision of high-quality telecommunications services in places with high population density. By cooperating with mobile operators and using dedicated fiber optic connections, these systems provide the reliability and performance necessary in today’s demanding telecommunications environments. Despite the challenges of cost and technical complexity, the advantages of BTS DAS make it a key element in modern cellular networks.

Distribution of signal in a distributed antenna system

DAS signal distribution modes are passive or active.

Passive DAS: Simple and Effective Solution for Small and Medium Objects

Passive DAS (Distributed Antenna System) is one method of improving cellular coverage in buildings and other enclosed spaces. In passive systems, radio signals are received in one location and then transmitted via cables to other locations. This type of DAS primarily uses passive components, such as amplifiers and coaxial cables, making it a simpler and often cheaper solution compared to active systems.

Passive DAS works by receiving the radio signal through an external antenna placed on the roof of a building or in another strategic location, which picks up the signal from a nearby cell tower. The received signal is then sent through the coaxial cables to an amplifier, which increases its power to provide adequate signal levels along the entire length of the cables. Finally, the signal is split between different internal antennas using radio frequency (RF) couplers, splitters, and taps. These components allow the signal to be evenly distributed throughout the building, providing coverage in every room.

Passive DAS has many advantages, including support for multiple cellular service providers simultaneously, allowing users of different networks to benefit from improved coverage without having to install separate systems for each operator. With simple components such as coaxial cables and passive RF elements, passive DAS is often less expensive to install and maintain than active systems that require more advanced equipment. Passive DAS is relatively easy to install and does not require complex infrastructure, allowing for rapid deployment, which is especially beneficial for smaller facilities.

Passive DAS has several disadvantages, including limited effectiveness over long distances, as the signal can be attenuated over long cable runs, leading to uneven coverage. Working with RF signals requires specialist knowledge, and installing and optimizing passive DAS can be complicated without the appropriately trained personnel. Additionally, passive DAS systems are less scalable than active systems, meaning that adding new antennas or expanding existing infrastructure can be more difficult and less efficient.

Application examples

Passive DAS can be used in many different types of buildings, especially where very long cable routes are not required:

• Small and medium office buildings: In moderate-sized office buildings, passive DAS can provide sufficient coverage for all users, improving call quality and internet access.
• Hotels: Passive DAS is ideal for hotels where good coverage is essential in every room, as well as in common areas such as lobbies and restaurants.
• Hospitals: In healthcare facilities, reliable cellular coverage is essential for communication and coordination. Passive DAS can provide uninterrupted connections throughout the facility.

Implementing a passive DAS requires several key components: external antennas, which are used to receive the signal from the outside; signal amplifiers, which increase the power of the received signal to ensure adequate signal levels along the entire length of the cables; coaxial cables, which are the wires used to transmit the signal between the antennas and the amplifiers; and RF couplers, splitters, and taps, which allow the signal to be split and distributed to different internal antennas.

Passive DAS is an effective solution for improving cellular coverage in small and medium-sized facilities. Despite the limitations of long cable runs and the need for specialist knowledge, these systems offer significant benefits in terms of cost and ease of installation. With support for multiple cellular service providers simultaneously, passive DAS is a universal and versatile tool for improving cellular call quality in a variety of environments.

Active DAS: Advanced Solution for Demanding Environments

Active DAS (Distributed Antenna System) is an advanced telecommunications solution that converts a radio frequency (RF) signal to another type of signal for transmission, and then back to RF at a second antenna. Active DAS systems typically use fiber optic or Ethernet cables to transmit the signal over long distances, providing significant advantages over the traditional coaxial cables used in passive DAS systems.

Active DAS works by receiving a radio frequency (RF) signal through an antenna, which is then converted to an optical or electrical signal using transmitting devices. This allows the signal to be transmitted over much longer distances without any loss of quality. The converted signal is transmitted via fiber optic or Ethernet cables to distribution points located throughout the building or facility. At these points, the signal is converted back to RF and transmitted to internal antennas that distribute the signal to end users.

Active DAS has many advantages, including the ability to transmit signals much farther than passive DAS, which is essential for large buildings, university campuses, and industrial complexes. By using fiber optics or Ethernet, the signal can be transmitted without significant loss of quality. The system is easier to expand because adding new distribution points or antennas is simpler and less expensive, allowing the system to scale as coverage needs increase. Fiber optics and Ethernet cables are more flexible and easier to install in a variety of environments, including complex architectural locations, simplifying the installation process. Additionally, by converting the signal to an optical or electrical signal, active DAS provides high-quality signal transmission, which translates into better cellular connections and faster mobile internet for end users.

Active DAS has several disadvantages, including higher costs, as components such as transmitters, signal converters, and other active components are more expensive to purchase and maintain compared to passive systems. Installing an active DAS requires advanced technical knowledge and careful planning, which can make the process of configuring and optimizing the system complex and time-consuming, and requires the employment of qualified personnel. In addition, active components require power, which means that appropriate power infrastructure must be provided at the installation sites, which can increase the operational and maintenance costs of the system.

Application examples

Active DAS is used in many demanding environments where reliability and signal quality are crucial:

• Conference Centers: Large conference centers where many people gather using the mobile network can benefit from active DAS to ensure even coverage and high call quality.
• Hospitals: In healthcare facilities, reliable cellular coverage is essential for communication between medical staff. Active DAS ensures uninterrupted connections throughout the facility.
• Airports: Large airports require strong cellular coverage throughout their facilities, both in terminals and on aprons. Active DAS is the ideal solution to provide this coverage.

Implementing an active DAS requires several key components. Transmitters convert the RF signal to an optical or electrical signal, and fiber optics or Ethernet cables are used to transmit the converted signal over long distances. Distribution points receive the converted signal and convert it back to RF, and internal antennas distribute the signal to end users.

Active DAS is an advanced and efficient telecommunications solution that provides high signal quality in large and complex facilities. Despite the higher cost and complicated installation, the benefits of longer cable runs, flexible installation and ease of expansion make active DAS the ideal choice for demanding environments. With the ability to transform and transmit signals over long distances, active DAS provides reliable cellular connections and faster mobile internet, meeting the growing demands of users.

Digital DAS: Modern Mobile and Data Network Integration Solution

Digital DAS (Distributed Antenna System) is an advanced subtype of active DAS that converts radio frequency (RF) signals into digital data packets. This innovative system combines the advantages of traditional DAS systems with modern data transmission technologies, enabling the integration of a cellular network with existing building network infrastructure. Digital DAS offers exceptional flexibility, scalability and efficiency, making it an ideal solution for today’s telecommunications environments.

Digital DAS works by converting the RF signal into digital data packets, which starts with the reception of the RF signal by external antennas. This signal is then converted into digital packets using advanced converters, which allows for easier transmission over long distances without loss of quality. The digital data packets are transmitted via fiber optic or Ethernet cables to distribution points located throughout the building. Unlike traditional DAS systems, digital DAS can use existing network infrastructure, simplifying the installation process and reducing costs. At the distribution points, the digital data packets are converted back into an RF signal, which is then distributed to internal antennas, providing end users with reliable cellular connections.

Digital DAS has many advantages, including easy integration with existing building data network infrastructure, eliminating the need to build new, dedicated infrastructure for the DAS system, reducing costs and speeding up the implementation process. Converting the RF signal into digital data packets minimizes signal loss and interference, leading to higher call quality and better system performance. The system is highly scalable, allowing for easy expansion as demand for telecommunications services increases, and by using digital data packets, it can be easily adapted to changing needs. In addition, using existing network infrastructure for signal transmission allows for reduced operational costs, and digital data packets can be efficiently transmitted over longer distances at a lower cost than traditional RF signals.

Digital DAS has several disadvantages, including higher initial costs, as it requires the purchase of advanced signal converters and other components, which increases the capital expenditure. Additionally, the installation of digital DAS requires advanced technical knowledge and precise planning, which can extend the implementation time and increase the costs associated with hiring qualified personnel.

Application examples

Digital DAS is used in a variety of environments that require reliable cellular network coverage and integration with data networks:

• Modern office buildings: In office buildings where an extensive network infrastructure exists, digital DAS can be easily integrated, providing high-quality cellular connections to all employees.
• Hospitals: In healthcare settings where connection reliability is key, digital DAS can leverage existing data networks to provide uninterrupted cellular connections throughout the facility.
• University campuses: Large university campuses with extensive IT infrastructure can benefit from digital DAS to ensure consistent cellular coverage across buildings and outdoor areas.

Implementing a digital DAS requires several key components, such as signal converters that convert the RF signal into digital data packets and vice versa. Optical fibers or Ethernet cables are used to transmit the converted signals over long distances, enabling efficient data transmission. Distribution points receive these digital data packets and convert them back into an RF signal, which is then distributed to end users via internal antennas.

Digital DAS is a modern and advanced telecommunications solution that enables the integration of a cellular network with the existing network infrastructure of buildings. By converting the RF signal into digital data packets, digital DAS offers high signal quality, flexibility and scalability, as well as the possibility of reducing operating costs. Despite higher initial costs and greater installation complexity, the advantages of digital DAS make it an ideal choice for today’s demanding telecommunications environments.

Hybrid DAS

Hybrid DAS uses active and passive types of distribution. This can improve system performance while keeping costs low. For example, a hybrid system might use active systems distributed over fiber optics to transmit the signal to each floor in a building and passive distribution to transmit the signal to several antennas on the floor.

In summary, modern telecommunications systems require advanced infrastructure, the construction and maintenance of which involves large capital expenditures. Owners of properties on which such infrastructure elements are located must be sure of stable rental income. Telecom Infrastructure Partners plays a key role here, providing financial security through a one-time purchase of a long-term lease, which minimizes the risk of loss of income and maximizes the use of capital.

Distributed Antenna Systems (DAS) are a key part of this infrastructure, providing reliable wireless signal coverage in areas where traditional methods may be inadequate. DAS consists of many smaller antennas strategically placed in buildings and other structures, enabling even signal distribution and overcoming architectural barriers. Investment in DAS systems, supported by partners such as Telecom Infrastructure Partners, is key to the development of modern telecommunications networks, providing users with reliable connectivity in the most demanding environments. With such solutions, both telecommunications operators and property owners can enjoy a stable and predictable source of revenue while meeting the growing communication needs of society.

Sources:

• What is a Distributed Antenna System (DAS)? by Gavin Wright
• Small Cells Concentrated Coverage and Optimal Performance . Nokia
• Dr. Wszołek: there will be more 5G base stations, but they will send the signal more precisely. author: Ludwika Tomala
• Metro DAS: Transit Wireless to Use RFS in New York City Subway Project. lightreading.com
• Wi-Fi 802.11 a/b/g/n/ac/ax standards – what do they mean? netia.pl
• Improve your building’s wireless coverage with DAS. callmc.com
• What is a bidirectional amplifier (bda) system? afap.com

Glossary of terms:

RF (Radio Frequency) is an electromagnetic signal that oscillates in the frequency range from about 3 kHz to 300 GHz, mainly used in wireless communication. RF signals are used to transmit information in systems such as radio, television, mobile phones, Wi-Fi networks, as well as in radar and navigation systems. Thanks to their ability to penetrate air and obstacles, RF signals are ideal for transmitting data over various distances, from a few meters to several kilometers. They are crucial to modern communication technologies, enabling the wireless exchange of information in a wide range of applications.

WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) is a wireless local area network that allows devices to communicate and exchange data within a limited area, such as a home, office, or campus, without the need for cables. WLAN uses Wi-Fi technology, which uses radio waves to transmit data between devices such as computers, smartphones, tablets, and printers. WLANs offer flexibility and mobility, allowing users to move freely within the network range without losing their connection. With high bandwidth and ease of installation, WLAN is widely used in many different environments, providing fast and convenient access to the Internet and network resources. LTE (Long-Term Evolution) is a standard for broadband wireless communication technology for mobile devices and data terminals, which offers significantly higher data transmission speeds and lower latency compared to earlier 3G technologies. LTE uses techniques such as OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) and MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) to improve network performance. It is a technology designed for smooth data transfer, supporting video streaming, online gaming and other bandwidth-intensive applications. LTE has become the basis for many modern mobile networks, allowing users to quickly access the Internet and have better call quality.

5G is the fifth generation of mobile network technology, which offers significantly higher data rates, lower latency and greater capacity compared to previous generations (4G LTE). This technology uses higher frequency bands, including mmWave, which allows for the transmission of larger amounts of data at higher speeds. 5G supports the development of new applications and services, such as the Internet of Things (IoT), autonomous vehicles, telemedicine and augmented reality (AR). With 5G, it is possible to connect up to one million devices per square kilometer, which significantly increases communication possibilities in densely populated urban areas and in places with high data traffic.

MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) is a wireless communication technology that uses multiple transmitting and receiving antennas, which increases data throughput and improves signal quality. It allows for simultaneous transmission of multiple data streams, which effectively uses the available frequency band. The main advantages of the MIMO system are increased throughput, better signal quality by reducing the impact of interference and interference, and greater spectral efficiency. This technology is used in modern communication systems, such as 4G LTE, 5G, Wi-Fi (802.11ac and 802.11ax) and in satellite communication, significantly improving transmission speed and connection reliability.

Beamforming is a technique that improves signal-to-noise ratio, eliminates interference and focuses signals transmitted in specific locations, essential for MIMO systems such as 5G, LTE and WLAN, increasing data throughput between the base station and the user. It is used in radar, sonar, medical imaging and audio applications, where beamformers focus signals in a specific direction and improve detection by summing signals from the elements of the system. Optimization-based techniques, including hybrid beamforming, are becoming increasingly popular. The performance of beamforming is evaluated by integrating it into a system model and analyzing various parameters, considering the trade-offs between beamforming in the RF and digital domains of the base.

Wi-Fi standards: 802.11 b/a/g/n/ac/ax:

The first standard, 802.11, introduced in 1997, offered low throughput (1-2 Mbps) and a range of up to 20 meters. In 1998, the 802.11 b standard appeared with a throughput of up to 11 Mbps and a range of up to 47 meters in buildings and 98 meters in open spaces.

The 802.11 a standard from 1999 used the 5 GHz frequency and offered throughputs of up to 54 Mbps, but had a shorter range and higher power consumption. In 2003, 802.11 g appeared, providing throughputs of up to 54 Mbps on the 2.4 GHz frequency, with better range and lower power consumption.

The 802.11 n standard, known as Wi-Fi 4, also introduced in 2003, offered throughputs of up to 600 Mbps and supported frequencies of 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, using MIMO technology. In 2013, 802.11 ac (Wi-Fi 5) was introduced with throughputs of up to 7 Gbps at 5 GHz, supporting channel widths from 20 MHz to 160 MHz, and MU-MIMO technology.

The latest 802.11 ax (Wi-Fi 6) standard from 2019 offers throughput of up to 10 Gbps, operating at 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequencies, using OFDMA technology, which ensures high performance even in heavy network congestion.

Choosing the right Wi-Fi standard and a modern router is crucial for the quality of your internet experience. Modern Wi-Fi standards allow for higher speeds, better range, and connection stability, which translates into better user experiences using the network on various devices.

NodeB (3G) is an element of the cellular network infrastructure that acts as a base station in 3G technology. It is responsible for communication between mobile devices and the operator’s network. NodeB converts radio signals into digital data and vice versa, enabling the transmission of voice, text messages and internet data. It is crucial for ensuring network coverage and handling voice and data calls, working with the base station controller (RNC) to manage radio resources and optimize network performance.

ENodeB (4G-LTE) is an element of the cellular network infrastructure operating as a base station in 4G LTE technology. It is responsible for direct communication with mobile devices, processing radio signals into digital data and vice versa, and manages radio resources. ENodeB supports functions related to data transmission, voice calls and quality of service (QoS) control. It is an integral element of the LTE network architecture, enabling fast data transfer, low latency and high throughput, which translates into better quality of service for end users.

GNodeB (5G-NR) is an element of the cellular network infrastructure operating as a base station in 5G New Radio (NR) technology. It is responsible for direct communication with mobile devices, converting radio signals into digital data and vice versa, and manages radio resources in the 5G network. GNodeB supports advanced features such as very high-bandwidth data transmission, low latency and support for a huge number of simultaneous connections, which is crucial for applications such as the Internet of Things (IoT), autonomous vehicles and advanced multimedia services. It is an integral element of the 5G network architecture, ensuring high performance and reliability of services.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a system of connected devices and sensors that communicate with each other and with central management systems via the Internet. These devices can collect, exchange and analyze data in real time, which allows for the automation of processes and making intelligent decisions. IoT is used in many areas, such as smart homes, industry 4.0, healthcare, agriculture and transportation. Thanks to IoT, it is possible to remotely monitor and control devices, which increases operational efficiency, improves the quality of services and enables the creation of new, innovative solutions.

The base station controller (RNC) is a key element of a 3G cellular network that manages radio resources and coordinates the operation of NodeB base stations. The RNC is responsible for controlling data transmission, managing handovers between base stations, and ensuring quality of service (QoS). It is responsible for forwarding data between base stations and the core network, optimizing network performance and efficiency. The RNC acts as an intermediary between the radio network elements and the central operator infrastructure, ensuring smooth and reliable communication.

Quality of Service (QoS) is a mechanism used in telecommunications networks to manage data flow and ensure that different types of network traffic receive appropriate resources and priorities. QoS enables network operators to guarantee a certain level of performance for critical applications such as voice, live video, and other services that require low latency and high throughput. By controlling parameters such as throughput, latency, jitter, and packet loss, QoS ensures that critical services run smoothly and reliably, even under heavy network load.

Bi-Directional Amplifier (BDA) Systems Bi-Directional Amplifier Systems play a critical role in ensuring smooth communication, especially during emergencies. These specialized devices, consisting of amplifiers, filters, antennas and power supplies, are used in large buildings, tunnels, stadiums and other structures to improve signal coverage and support critical communication systems. In emergency situations, when every second counts, clear and uninterrupted communication can be a matter of life and death. BDA systems eliminate the problems associated with structural interference, distance limitations and signal loss, improving radio signal coverage and providing reliable communication over large areas. They work by receiving weak radio signals, amplifying them and distributing them through internal antennas, which provides better signal quality and coverage. BDA systems are essential for public safety and effective emergency response, eliminating dead zones and providing comprehensive signal coverage. Many jurisdictions require standards for reliable in-building communication, and BDAs help meet these requirements by improving signal strength and coverage throughout the building. They are also beneficial for day-to-day operations in large facilities such as healthcare facilities, hotels, and educational institutions, ensuring uninterrupted communication for staff, patients, guests, and students. They also offer scalable and adaptive solutions, enabling future expansion and integration with new technologies, allowing organizations to maintain a modern communication infrastructure and stay up to date with the latest technological advances.

Remote Antenna Units (RAU) are remote antenna units used in Distributed Antenna System (DAS) systems that extend the range of a wireless signal over large areas. RAUs receive the signal from a central amplifier and convert it into an RF signal, which is then distributed to end users. RAUs can effectively cover different parts of buildings, campuses or industrial complexes, ensuring high-quality connections and reliable wireless communication.

PONs (Passive Optical Networks) are a fiber optic network technology that enables the delivery of data, voice, and video from a central point to multiple end users using passive optical components. In PONs, a central transmitter transmits the fiber signal to optical splitters, which split the signal into multiple streams without the need for active power components. This makes PON technology energy efficient and more cost-effective than traditional fiber optic networks, as it eliminates the need for power and active equipment along the entire signal path. PONs are widely used in delivering Internet and telecommunications services to homes and businesses, offering high throughput, reliability, and low operating costs.

Fiber , or optical fiber, is a transmission medium used to transmit data over long distances using light. Optical fibers consist of very thin glass or plastic fibers through which light pulses flow, transmitting information at high speed and with minimal signal loss. Due to their high bandwidth and resistance to electromagnetic interference, optical fibers are widely used in telecommunications, computer networks and data transmission systems. This technology provides fast and reliable data transfer, which is crucial for modern Internet services, video transmission and voice communication.

Coax , or coaxial cable, is a transmission medium used to transmit electrical signals, consisting of an inner conductor surrounded by an insulating layer, an outer shield, and an outer casing. This construction allows for efficient transmission of signals with minimal loss and protection against electromagnetic interference. Coaxial cables are widely used in cable television, monitoring systems, computer networks, and other applications requiring reliable data transmission. Due to its durability and signal stability, coax is a popular choice in installations where long cable runs and high signal quality are required.

OLANs (Optical Local Area Networks) and FTTH (Fiber to the Home) are network technologies that use optical fibers to transmit data. OLANs are local optical networks that use optical fibers for internal connections in office buildings, campuses or data centers, offering high bandwidth and low latency. FTTH is a technology that delivers optical fiber directly to homes or businesses, providing fast and reliable access to the Internet, television and telephone services. Both technologies significantly improve the quality and speed of data transmission compared to traditional methods, supporting modern applications requiring high speeds, such as video streaming, teleworking and the Internet of Things (IoT).